Holy Byzantine Women Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Holy Byzantine Women - Term Paper Example While we do have well documented accounts of powerful empresses, it is often more beneficial to understand the plight of the average Byzantine woman to truly understand the inner-workings of this particular civilization. Many women during this time period were quite religious and became the saints of their particular generation. Thankfully we do have some wonderful and cherished memories of their lives that will prove most helpful in this endeavor. It is important to see, through the perspective of history, the important role that women played in many different aspects of Byzantine society. This will allow us to envision that life, without Byzantine women, would have been difficult at best. Through a careful examination of four different holy Byzantine holy women, we will establish that the economic, social, and religious contributions of the common Byzantine woman enabled the continued existence of this society for centuries.  Biographical Analysis Saint Theodora of Arta is the fi rst holy woman we will discuss. As is typical of Byzantine women, we do not know exactly when she was born, but it must have been somewhere between 1224 and 1230. She was from Servia and her father was John Pertraliphas. He was quite famous in his own right, being the governor of Thessaly and Macedonia. She became married to the ruler of Epirus and Thessaly, apparently when she was still a child. This happened shortly after the husband’s accession to the throne in 1231. She became saintly due to her circumstances. Her husband preferred his mistress, which meant that Theodora was not allowed in the house or on the grounds, forcing her into a life of poverty on the streets. From written accounts, she suffered through these various hardships without complaining, even while she was pregnant, eventually gaining the attention of a village priest. The priest gave her shelter for nearly five years until Theodora’s husband saw the error of his ways and invited his wife back to live with him. From this account, we envision that Theodora’s mind and heart was pure. She did not choose the life she was given, yet she remained of positive attitude and worked hard to do right by her child and her God. Over the course of her life, she founded the convent of St. George, which was in Arta, and actually lived there after her husband died. To this day, her tomb is a pilgrimage site and many have ascribed miracles to it. Another saintly woman that we have a written account of is Saint Thomais of Lesbos. Thomais was in Lesbos, but spent much of her life in Constantinople. Subsequently, much of what we know about her is confined to that region. The parents of Thomais were named Michael and Kale. From all accounts, they were quite a pious and god-fearing couple. In addition, they were happy as a couple, so we are left to assume that Thomais was raised in a solid and pleasant environment and, while they did not have much, she received love and compassion at home. S adly, her particular marriage was not so happy. She married Stephen and we read that their marriage was a disaster. Thomais was perfectly content staying at home with her parents, and did so until the age of 24, perhaps foreshadowing her own fear of marriage. She did not have children of her own. During her adult life, she was in the habit of walking the streets of Constantinople and was

Summary & Close Reading of Paulo Freires Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summary & Close Reading of Paulo Freires - Essay Example In Pedagogy of the oppressed, Paulo Freire uses a combination of political, educational and philosophical theories in order to address the real source of oppression as well as liberation for the oppressed. He advocates for the awakening of critical and creative thinking as the only medium of liberation which takes place through a new and a more dynamic approach to education. This new approach to education focuses on a close partnership between the teacher and the student by seeking to empower the student to be involved in a dialogue process and adoption of human qualities evident in the thought process and its correlative action. The book begins by introducing the idea of developing critical awareness among the oppressed people in the society. The oppressed normally have the fear of freedom which increases the chances of then being oppressed. According to Paulo Freire, those who are under oppression must strive to see the bigger picture outside them so that they develop an understanding of their situation in order to begin thinking about their own world. Such a process can only be attained through dialogue in education in which one has to adopt change as the only tool for transformation. The only way towards reclaiming humanity is by critical consciousness which leads to synthesis of thought and actions. As a result only those who are being oppressed have got the power to save themselves from such kind of oppression and the only approach is through critical analysis as well as understanding of reality that guides them to action. The term, â€Å"banking education† has been adopted by Freire to refer to the traditional relationship between the teacher and the student owing to its oppressive nature. In such a case, the teacher possesses control thus playing the role of the oppressor while the student who is always passive in the learning process assumes the position of the oppressed. The role of the teacher is to deposit information into the student who

Technology in Our Life Essay Example for Free

Technology in Our Life Essay Way too dependent on technology Most kids these days dont even know how to use a dictionary because Google has it all so they dont see it as a necessary skill. Look around at how many people are engrossed in their phones walking down the street, or while driving. Most accidents are caused by people using their phones while driving, whether it be for GPS, to get on Facebook or anything else. Its insane for some people to fathom how anyone ever lived without texting, GPS, and Google. Technology is a big help and a big problem. So how do we know when too much is too much when it comes to using all the technology we have today?

Enhancing Democracy Through Digital Communication Systems Media Essay

Enhancing Democracy Through Digital Communication Systems Media Essay In this essay, I aim to discuss whether the digital communication systems enhance democracy by offering greater access and participation to citizens as compared to traditional media. I will address this by defining the terms digital communication systems and democracy and exploring the differences in digital communication systems and traditional media and how these differences lead to enhancement of democracy on digital communication systems. Digital communication systems also known as network communication or new media simply refers to a constant reformulation of the relations between the media forms, interconnecting interpersonal communications established between different media in a network based on the interactions between users, mass media companies and, perhaps, regulators (Cardoso, 2011: 119). The digital communication system, as the name suggests, makes use of digital technology and devices and comprises of the Internet, mobile communications, and social media and so on. As compared to traditional media, such as the newspaper, radio and television, digital media offers more opportunities of democracy as it provides greater accessibility and allows for more participation by consumers. The arrival of social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace and others changed the Internet (Cardoso, 2011: 131). These social platforms have the most impact on how digital communication systems enhance democracy. ENHANCING DEMOCRACY THROUGH DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Firstly, content flow is less controlled over the Internet as compared to traditional media. Traditional media is still largely regulated by the state and/or media owners. Depending on the country, the media institution may be governed by the state or by private media owners. The owners of the institution direct the type of news that is broadcasted. Simply put within a specific old medium, people do not have many choices (Wei and Hindman, 2011: 220) An example would be the direction taken by media in Singapore. The media organisation in Singapore, MediaCorp, is owned by the Government and therefore, media is heavily regulated and news published will either be neutral or in favour of the Government. Not just with news, the types of programmes aired by MediaCorp are more conservative and slanted towards the Government (Seow, 1998: 183 194). Only through the Web are citizens able to express their views on the Government and its policies and receive and collect more diverse opinions from fellow citizens and not just a one-sided direction by the traditional media. With digital media, content on the Internet is available to almost everyone and anyone. There are limitations and regulations on the Web when it comes to content sourcing, however, with the advancement of technology; it is easily possible to get round that limitation and regulation. (Jin, 2011: 42) According to Bonfadelli, Wei and Hindman states that in contrast to traditional mass media, the new media such as the Internet provide much more diverse content and an unprecedented level of user controllability. The content supply on the Internet is not structured by journalists and is, therefore, heterogeneous and potentially unlimited (Wei and Hindman, 2011: 220). Jin gives an example of the criminal conviction of Conrad Black. As one of the most influential controllers of the global commercial media system, the conviction of Black confirms that people should not place all their trust in the mainstream media (Jin, 2011: 43) He explains that there is a need for the audience to produce alternative information sources and platforms for expression of their opinions. Only then will society be able to expand the avenues within interactive social networking and communication (Jin, 2011: 43). All the audience needs is a click of the button on their laptops or mobile phones and news and information will be readily available for consumption. A citizen from Australia can find out about happenings in Africa and be able to obtain viewpoints from different sources, and not just the one perspective that traditional media provides, all while on-the-go or from the comfort of his house. Secondly, audience participation helps enhance democracy as it becomes more active with the development of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube as well as with the growth of blogs and forums. Consumers interact on these sites and get almost instantaneous response. The popularity of these sites also gives rise to citizen journalism, whereby the consumers become the producers, putting their content whether its their view on an issue or an original work of theirs onto the Web. The intent of this citizen participation is to provide independent, reliable, accurate, widespread and appropriate information that is required to strengthen the democracy (Riaz and Pasha, 2011: 90) All these forms of audience participation give voice to the issues of the world. The digital communication systems can have political impact on a country as well. A countrys laws and policies can be shaped as the citizens use of digital communications system changes. For example, some individuals and parties have taken to the Web for their presidential elections, such as the Barrack Obamas presidential campaign. Obamas successful online strategy in 2008, with the use of social networking sites saw Obama winning the election to becoming the President of the United States. With the elections on-going in the states now, President Obama has taken to social media again Reddit in particular. This time, Mitt Romney followed suit, taking over Twitter to gain foothold. Social media makes it easier for candidates to interact with the citizens and vice versa. Global Voices Online is an example of how audience participation online encourages democracy. According to its website, Global Voice seeks to aggregate, curate and amplify the global conversation online shining light on places and people other media often ignore. We work to develop tools, institutions and relationships that will help all voices, everywhere, to be heard (Global Voice, 2011). Global Voices Online acts as a platform for free, diverse and neutral voices (Riaz and Pasha, 2011: 90) and having more voices in the public arena can add to a more lively democracy (Riaz and Pasha, 2011: 93). These multimedia platforms have enabled new ways of bearing witness through technology and the ability to create media events; raise issues of aesthetics, cognitive distance or proximity as well as our ability to empathize and relate to human suffering (Jin, 2011: 124). This differs from traditional media where feedback and a consumers voice can only be heard if the media institution decides to broadcast it. Therefore, even traditional media institutions have jumped onto the Internet and social media bandwagon, inheriting the notion that it is important to keep abreast with of whats going on in the world so as to be not caught off-guard and be able to react accordingly (Cardoso, 2011: 120) Thirdly, the intercreative possibilities of social Web practices are leading to different kinds of representations and constructions of truth (Boler, 2008: 6). Boler explains the statement using the Persian Gulf War in 1991 as an example. She explains that one could not evidence the deceptions of television news spin easily as public archives could not be made, but now, information and sometimes, videos are easily accessible off the Internet that consumers now are able to easily determine what is factual and what is not. Consumers now demand and expect the truth. With the reach and accessibility of digital communications, political, education and the other institutions are pressured into doing the right thing and media institutions are pressured to report the truth. This is because citizen journalists have wrecked the stories about political corruption, police violence and other concerning issues to local and international communities (Riaz and Pasha, 2011: 92). It has become harder for the media, Government and any other corporations to get away when injustice has been done by them. An example would be China. After the Sichuan earthquake in 2008, China experienced an unprecedented openness in its media coverage (BBC News, 2008). Citizen journalism started flourishing as the Chinese media (were) instructed not to cover this kind of story, and a member of BBC and five other journalists were detained for a short time for approaching the parents (BBC News, 2008). This kind of story referring to articles on local corruption resulting in shoddy construction (BBC News, 2008). Unless a valid explanation was provided by the Chinese Government, talk on corruption causing the death of 87,000 citizens will not disappear. The Chinese Government then went to the extreme by sentencing activists who were investigating the cause of collapsing buildings to jail. The Chinese media might have avoided reporting on corruption and the cause of collapsed buildings, but it was not possible to stop citizen journalism from spreading like wildfire. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AGAINST DEMOCRACY The Internet could also become a double-edged sword as the freedom on the Web leads to misuse of the freedom and of the technology. As content become increasingly available to the public, piracy and copyright has become a major concern. The public now has free access to information and entertainment that previously had to be paid for. Now that its free, would the consumers want to pay for it? They do not, which is what led to the drastic increase in consumers downloading songs, videos and even e-books online through sites like LimeWire. In situations like this, the Internet does not enhance democracy but instead, undermines the value of the work by the original owner. CONCLUSION The digital communication systems have greatly impacted not just the media industry, but also on education, politics, cultural and social aspects. The consumers rely on the media to separate facts and tangible realities from assumptions and spin, to provide a reliable account of what is really going on (Hettiarachchi, 2011). Only with an unbiased and factual report will the consumers be able to form their own viewpoint. With less regulated content flow, audience participation on social media and the constant demand for truth, digital communication systems are increasingly enhancing democracy as compared to traditional media.

Essay on Camus’ The Stranger (The Outsider): World Without Purpose

World Without Purpose in Camus' The Stranger (The Outsider)   In The Stranger, Albert Camus misleadingly portrays his existentialistic views of life, death, and the world.   Camus portrays the world as absurd or without purpose Meaursalt, who, as a reflection of Camus, is foreign and indifferent to his own life and death.   Meaursalt eventually senses guilt for his crime, not because of the remorse of taking someone else’s life, but because it means he would lose the little things that he considers important in his life.   Meaursalt is a puzzling character, who leaves readers to be uncertain about Camus’ views of life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Meaursalt is a simple and ordinary man living in French Morocco.   Neither intellectual nor emotional, when his mother died, he did not feel or show any sorrow.   He is a character rather distracted by his surrounding, such as people walking by and nature.   He would feel much irritation whenever the sun would shine red and bright.   On a thoughtless walk on the beach, he ends up killing an Arab (who had a hostile relationship with his friend) for no apparent reason, but because his [Arab] blade light reflected by the sun.   In addition, for no good reason he shoots four more times, the body lying on the ground.   He is tried in court, during which he feels he is his own spectator.   Meaursalt gets convicted of murder and sentenced to death.   Before execution, he feels guilt for the first time because he would miss the simple things in life.   However, he is never scared to die, because for him death comes eventually.   Just before the execut ion, a chaplain tries to make him believe in God, but Meaursalt angrily defends his atheistic views.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Meaursalt is an uncommon character that prefers simpl... ...t sure whether to say it is objective or subjective.   The novel itself is a puzzle to me and I’m not in any pursuit to figure it out.   I’m not refusing to, but I find no point in doing so.   The same way Meaursalt treats life as meaningless, I treat it the same way, but that life is meaningful.   We don’t need to go searching too hard that in the process we give up on life, as I see Meaursalt as.   I think you could have a meaningful life without knowing the meaning.   I can’t accept Meaursalt’s values, because I do believe in a God and an afterlife.   That is the difference between him and me.   I would not recommend this book to anybody who is in the process of soul searching.   It is a confusing yet an unique story to be regarded only as Camus’ point of view of life. Works Cited: Camus, Albert. The Stranger, trans. Mathew Ward. New York: Random House, Inc., 1988.

Wicca :: essays research papers

Wicca   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jan Phillips article The Craft of the Wise tells of how she came to learn of one of her ancestors who was hung during the Salem Witch Hunts. This lit an interest in her mind to further research the subject of Wicca, the craft of the wise. By consulting many books about witchcraft, she learned that Wicca is more of a nature and imagination based religion than the spellcasting voodoo practicing stereotype it has been made out to be in the past. Through her research, she finds out that Wicca and Paganism have become the fastest growing religions in the United States. She then goes on to tell the differences between magic and the supernatural. She closes by stating that we should try to see ourselves in other people instead of focusing in on our differences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second article I found concerning Wicca emphasizes Jan Phillips that despite peoples personal preferences we are all human beings. The article Do You Believe In Magic tells the plight of two practicing witches, the Riley's, who chose to open a pagan shop in a predominantly Christian town. Due to differences in religious views, their land lord refused to renew their lease. Many townspeople, including several town ministers, publicly voiced their objections to the couples business venture. The Riley's gathered fellow Pagans from surrounding areas and marched down the towns main street publicly displaying their beliefs. People began to compare this incident to the Salem Witch Hunts. Just as Jan Phillips ancestor was tortured because of she allegedly chose to practice her beliefs, so were the Riley's for choosing to go public with their beliefs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The third article I read was about an average American woman who is also a High Priestess of a Boston area coven. She tells of how traditional Protestant beliefs were not for her, and how Wicca seemed to fit her ideals better. Like the Riley's, she too has been the victim to discriminations due to her religious choice. Ms. Ralph, the witch mentioned above, describes an incident when a coworker was bothered so much by her religion that she went to Ms. Ralph's superiors. The coworker claimed that Ms. Ralph was performing animal sacrifices and was threatening to cast a spell on her family. Ms. Ralph couldn't understand how someone could be so opposed to another's personal beliefs. In the end of the article she goes on to say that her boss saw through the whole scheme, and listened to what her religion really entailed. To her surprise he was very open-minded to her religious practices, and she wondered

Consumer Behavour

Models of Consumer Behaviour UNIT 9 Objectives MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR After reading this unit, you should be able to: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ identify the different levels of consumer decision-making explain the process of consumer decision-making differentiate between types of buyer decision behaviour describe the buyer behaviour with the help of an input, process, output model Structure 9. 1 Introduction 9. 2 What Is a Decision? 9. 3 Levels of Consumer Decisions 9. 4 Process of Decision- Making 9. 5 Types of Purchase Decision Behaviour 9. 6 Stages in the Buyer Decision Process 9. 7 Models of Buyer Behaviour 9. 8 Summary 9. 9 Key Words 9. 0 Self-assessment Questions 9:11 Further Readings 9. 1 INTRODUCTION In this unit we shall examine how a consumer actually arrives at the decision to purchase a specific product or brand out of the so many available in the market. Or, in other words, we shall study the process of consumer decision-making. In the previous unit we had di scussed a simple model of consumer decision-making, comprising an input, process and an output. A consumer receives stimuli from the environment and the specifics of the marketing strategies of different products and services, and responds to these stimuli in terms of either buying or not buying the product. In between the stage of receiving the stimuli and responding to it, the consumer goes through the process of making his decision. 9. 2 WHAT IS A DECISION? A decision is the selection of an alternative out of the several number of alternatives available. It is only when theme are two or more alternatives available that there is the need to make a choice. In the field of consumer behaviour, we are only concerned with situation in which the consumer has to take a purchase decision where there is a choice available. 27 Understanding Consumers 9. 3 LEVELS OF CONSUMER DECISIONS As a buyer or consumer you are all the time making decisions such as what product to buy (a book or a shirt as a birthday present for your friend), Which brand (Lux, Liril, Hamam, Rexona or OK toilet soap) from where (Super Bazar, nearby corner shop, chemist), etc. Table 1 presents a summary of the different levels of purchase related decisions most commonly encountered by consumers. The table highlights the broad range of choices the consumers have to select from when making a decision, starting from the generic product category level to the brand level and retail outlet level. 9. 4 PROCESS OF DECISION-MAKING The most basic and important requirement for the marketer is to understand how consumers make choices. Ajzen and Fishbein have attempted to explain human choice behaviour in their theory of reasoned action which states that: â€Å"Generally speaking-human beings are usually quite rational and make systematic use of information available to them. People consider the implications of their actions before they decide to engage or not to engage in a given behaviour. † Thus, making a decision is a rational and conscious process in which the consumer evaluates each of the available alternatives to select the best amongst them. Each decision you make involves an elaborate mental thought process, a degree of active reasoning, though on the surface it may not always seem to be so. This may be because over a period of time you have taken certain decisions so many times that they now seem to be made almost automatically but that is not true at all. Even your daily decision of buying a loaf of bread involves the element of active reasoning as buying a new sofa set for your drawing room. However, in the former case, the extent and intensity of active reasoning may be much less as compared to the latter case. 28 In the case of bread, the only decision variables may be which brand, quantity and retail outlet. But in case of buying a sofa set the decision variables are far more in number. These may be: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ready-made or made to order from a furniture shop or to be built at home type of material for frame: Wood, Steel, Aluminium type of material for cushion: cloth, rexine, leather design: with or without arm-rests, height, depth of seat, seating capacity, loose or fixed cushion. Models of Consumer Behaviour Thus, depending on the type of decision being made, the degree and strength of active reasoning will vary. There are three factors which influence the degree of active reasoning that is undertaken by the consumer in his process of decision-making. These are: i) involvement, ii) alternative differentiation, and iii) time pressure i) Involvement: When a product is perceived to be of great personal importance to the customer, such as personal clothing, or its purchase involves a great deal of money or risk such as jewellery, car, house, company shares, the level of involvement in making the decision is likely to be very high. The consumer is likely to spend a great deal of time before arriving at the final decision. In contrast, when buying items which do not reflect much on the consumer's personality or their purchase involves small amounts of money . or the risk associated with them is not high, the degree of involvement of the consumer is likely to be low. Products such as shoes, polish, toilet soap, toothpaste, biscuits etc. would fall in this category. i) Differentiation: When the consumer perceives that the various alternatives which are available are very different from one another in terms of their features and benefits offered, he is likely to spend more time in gathering information about and evaluating these different features. On the other hand, in case of products which are not very different from one another either in terms of their features or benefits offered, the consumer is bound to perceive them as being almost the same and buy the first available product/brand which satisfies his minim um expectation. He will not like to spend much time in evaluating the various alternatives. The various brands of washing powder available in the market today are an excellent example of low level of differentiation with the consumer perceiving the different brands to be offering almost identical benefits. All the brands, such as Nirma, Vimal, Vijay, etc. look similar with identical packing and carry almost the same price tag. Till a few years ago, the two wheel scooter market in ,India was highly undifferentiated with Vespa and Lambretta offering almost identical scooter to the consumers in terms of basic features. But today the same market is highly differentiated. The consumers have a wide range of brands to choose from such as Kinetic-Honda, Lohia, Bajaj etc. each offering a variety of shapes, horse power and many other innovative features to choose from. A potential consumer of scooter would have to spend considerable time in evaluating each brand before he is in a position to make his decision. iii) Time Pressure: When you are under pressure to make a decision quickly, you cannot afford to spend a long time finding out about the various products or brands. You would probably buy whatever is readily available. While traveling in your car to a hill station your car tyre bursts and you need to buy a new one. At that time you would buy the brand that is available at whatever price without giving it too much thought. But under a different situation, when you need to buy new tyres, you would certainly like to find the features of nylon and radial tyres and evaluate various brands e. g. Modi, MRF, Dunlop and Apollo etc. on their individual advantages and disadvantages. 29 Understanding Consumers Activity 1 a) For each of the products/services written below, identify whether the purchase decision involves a high or low degree of involvement under normal circumstances: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) Scooter Tyre Steel almirah Transistor radio Bicycle Shirting material A pair of shoes Toothpaste A family planning device such as Nirodh Restaurant Voltage stabiliser. b) In respect of the above products, record which differentiated alternatives (brands) are available in the market. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9. 5 TYPES OF PURCHASE DECISION BEHAVIOUR Consumer buying behaviour varies with the type of buying decision. Earlier, we stated that while a decision for buying bread was almost made automatically, the decision for buying a sofa set was more deliberate and time consuming. Similarly, there is a great deal of difference in buying a tube of toothpaste, clothes for yourself and a refrigerator for your home. We shall now distinguish three types of buying behaviour: i) Routinised response behaviour, ii) Limited problem solving, and iii) Extended problem solving. ) Routinised response behaviour (RRB): This occurs when the consumer already has some experience of buying and using the product. He is familiar with the various brands available and the attributes of each and has a well establ ished criteria for selecting his own brand. Consumers do not give much thought or time when buying such products and already have a preferred brand. The degree of involvement in buying such products is low. Frequently purchased and low cost products such as razor blades, coffee powder, toothpaste, soap, soft drinks, etc. fall in this category. Marketers ealing in products involving routinised response behaviour must ensure the satisfaction of existing customers by maintaining consistent quality, service and value. Also, they must attempt to attract new customers by introducing novel features, using point-of-purchase promotional material and special displays. ii) Limited Problem Solving (LPS): In this type of buying behaviour, the consumer is familiar with the product and the various brands available, but has no established brand preference. The consumer would like to gather additional information about the brands to arrive at his brand decision. For instance a housewife buys refined vegetable oil for her cooking. She is familiar with the concept of vegetable oil (as opposed to say vanaspati and ghee) and also knows that Postman, Dalda and Ruby are some of the prominent brands available. But to establish her choice of brand, she would like to check with her friends and regular shopkeeper about the attributes of each. Limited problem solving also takes place when a consumer encounters an unfamiliar (or new) brand in a known product category. The housewife who buys refined 30 vegetable oil, on her next visit to the market, sees a new brand of oil, Saffola. Apart from being a new brand, this brand of oil also claims the unique attribute of being low in cholesterol. To arrive at a decision, whether or not to buy this brand, the housewife needs to gather information about the new brand which will allow her to compare it with the known brands. The marketer's task in a situation where he is introducing a new brand in a well known product category is to design a communication strategy that gives complete information on all the attributes of the brand, thus increasing the consumer's confidence and facilitating his or her purchase decision. ii) Extensive Problem Solving (EPS): Extensive problem solving occurs when the consumer is encountering a new product category. He needs information on both the product category as well as the various brands available in it. This kind of decision is by far the most complex. For instance, you are thinking of buying a Flat colour television to replace your existing black and white TV set. You do not have much idea about how to judge the quality of a, colour TV set. You have heard about the various rands, such as Videocon, BPL, Samsung, LG, Sony, Thomson etc. but you do not know what t heir respective quality ranking is in colour TV. Each brand makes claims of foreign technology, latest features such as flat square tube and channel display. Further, t here is a range of models to choose from within each brand, models with remote control . different cabinet colour finish, vertical monitor styling etc. To arrive at a decision, you have to gather information at three levels and also establish a criteria for evaluating this information. The three levels of information gathering and evaluation are at generic product level, brand level and model level within each brand. The marketing strategy for such buying behaviour must be such that it facilitates the consumer's information gathering and learning process about the product category and his own brand. The marketer must be able to provide his consumer with a very specific and unique set of positive attributes regarding his own brand, so that the purchase decision is made in his favour. The concept of EPS is most applicable to new products. The product may be new at the generic product concept level (such as Maggi noodles) or it may be an established product concept but new for a particular consumer. In case of a new product concept such as ready to cook instant snack, the entire consumer universe is unfamiliar with the product. The marketer has to spend large amounts of money in educating the consumers about his product. The consumers in turn need a great deal of information before they can take a decision; and the decision process takes a long time. On the other hand, you may have the situation where the product concept is well understood by a majority of the consumers, but it is being bought or used by a particular consumer for the first time. To take a very simple example, a tribal who is exposed to the concept of toothpaste for the first time in his life will seek a lot of information and take a long time to decide. For him, buying a toothpaste is a EPS behaviour, whereas for most of us it simply requires a routinised response behaviour. Models of Consumer Behaviour 9. 6 STAGES IN THE BUYER DECISION PROCESS Even buying decision involves an element of active reasoning. The manner in which this active reasoning manifests itself is illustrated in Figure I. In making a purchase decision the consumer goes through the five stages of: i) ii) iii) iv) v) problem recognition, pre-purchase information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post purchase behaviour. However, in case of routine purchases, the consumer may skip the second and third stages and straight away go to the stage of purchase decision. But in case of purchase 31 Understanding Consumers decision involving extensive problem solving, the consumer is likely to go through all the five stages in the specified sequence. The important point to note is that the buying process starts much before the actual purchase and has implications even after the purchase has been made. This should give ideas to the marketer as to how he has to start designing his marketing strategy in order to achieve his specified marketing objectives. Figure I: Stages in the Buyer Decision Process Let us understand the stages in decision-making process with the help of a Mr. Rao's specific decision to purchase a briefcase. i) Problem Recognition: The buying process starts with the buyer recognising a need or problem. Mr. Rao feels very uncomfortable carrying his papers, files and lunch packet in his hand or in a plastic bag to his work place. Sometimes, the papers and even files from his hand and get spoiled Mr. Rao feels the need for a suitable receptacle to carry papers to and fro from his office and has identified a briefcase as the solution to his problem. i) Pre-Purchase Information Search: In response to the stimuli provided by the need for a briefcase, Mr. Rao starts searching for information on the kinds of briefcases available in the market. Search can be of two types: internal and external. Internal search refers to recalling relevant information stored in the memory. For instance, Mr. Rao may recall having seen the different kinds of briefcases used by his colleague s. Or he may recall having seen some advertisements for briefcases on the television or in some magazines and newspapers. External search refers to the deliberate and voluntary seeking of new information regarding the product/brand under consideration. Mr. Rao can seek information from the following three sources: †¢ †¢ †¢ Personal sources: family, friends, colleagues, neighbours. Commercial sources: advertisements, retailers, salesmen. Public sources: seeing others, consumer information centres. By tapping all these sources of information, Mr. Rao is able to identify the different types of briefcase on the basis of material, branded versus unbranded, high-mediumlow priced. A wide variety of materials are used for making briefcases ranging from the best leather to rexine to plastic. There are branded briefcases available and Mr. Rao can choose from the well known VIP, Safari and Aristocrat and some less known local brands, or he can choose to buy an unbranded briefcase. The price ranges from Rs. 125 to Rs. 1200. Also, there are a number of other features which can influence the choice, such as type of lock, and number of partitions and pockets for keeping different documents. By the end of this stage, Mr. Rao has gathered enough information about different kinds of briefcases available and has narrowed down his alternatives to moulded plastic, branded briefcase. Within this broad range there are various brands and price ranges to make the final choice from. Evaluation of Alternatives: Mr. Rao will make his final decision using certain evaluative criteria. The most commonly used criteria are: (i) product attribute, (ii) the relative importance of each attribute to the consumer, (iii) brand image, (iv) attitudes towards the different brands or alternatives under considerations. For instance, the product attributes of the (Plastic branded briefcase) alternatives identified by Mr. Rao are: , unbreakable, lightweight, spaciousness, reliability of locking system, colour, price. Mr. Rao attaches maximum importance to the product attributes of light weight and spaciousness as compared to other attributes. He already has some kind of attitude towards the various brands developed in the stage of information search which will affect his final decision. 32 This stage of the buying decision process gives the marketer a chance to modify his product offering in keeping with the relative importance attached to each attribute by various consumer segments, altering beliefs and attitudes about his own brand, and calling attention to neglected product attributes, Purchase Decision: In the evaluation stage, Mr. Rao has ranked the various brands in terms of his first, second and third preference. In short, he has made up his mind about which brand he wants to buy. However, Mr. Rao may finally end up buying a brand which is not his most preferred. This may happen because attitudes of others and †situational factors. For instance, when Mr. Rao goes to the shop to make his purchase, the shopkeeper's negative remarks about his (Mr. Rao's) most preferred brand may make him change his mind. Also, it is possible that Mr. Rao's preferred brand is not available, or there is a very attractive price discount on the brand ranked third by him which eventually makes him change his mind. Post Purchase Behaviour: After purchasing the briefcase, if Mr. Rao finds that its performance or utility matches up to his expectation, Mr. Rao will feel satisfied with his purchase. The satisfaction will reinforce Mr. Rao's perceived favourable image of the brand, which is likely to be extended to the entire range of products manufactured by the Company. Also, Mr. Rao is likely to strongly recommend the brand when his friends ask his advice for buying a new briefcase. A satisfied customer is thus a very powerful source of influence for potential customers. However, if Mr. Rao feels that the briefcase which he has purchased is not upto his expectation, then he is likely to feel dissatisfied. The gap between expected (or perceived) and the actual performances causes discomfort or dissonance to the buyer. As a result of this, Mr. Rao may decide to stop buying other products sold by the same Company and also warn his friends about the poor utility of his briefcase. To reduce his own state of discomfort or dissonance arising from the feeling that he has not made the right choice, Mr. Rao can: (i) re-evaluate the unchosen brands and downgrade their desirability by identifying some negative features, and (ii) search for information to confirm his choice. Models of Consumer Behaviour Activity 2 a) Consider the case of a consumer durable which you may have recently purchased. Try to recall the actual process you might have undergone in buying that. Write down the specific activities you undertook at each stage of the decision-making process. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ b) Do you find any differences in the approach described above and the approach that you may have followed? What could be the reasons for these differences? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 33 Understanding Consumers 9. 7 MODELS OF BUYER BEHAVIOUR Consumer behaviour is a process and purchase is only one stage in that process. There are many underlying influences ranging from internal motivations and attitudes to social and external influences of many kinds. Having explained the consumer decision. making process, now let us turn our attention to the process of consumer or buyer behaviour. We shall explain the process of buyer behaviour with the help of four models. The first two models describe the decision process as applicable to individual consumer. The third model explains the decision-making process of a group, namely the family. The fourth model explains the decision-making process in the context of an organisation. Howard-Sheth Model This model explains the buyer decision process using four major sets of variables as presented in Figure II. The four sets of variables are: (i) inputs, (ii) perceptual and learning constructs, (iii) outputs and (iv) exogenous or external variables. i) Input: The input to the customer decision process is provided by three distinct types of stimuli. Of these two types of stimuli are provided by the marketer in the form of physical, tangible product characteristics known as significative stimuli, and intangible, perceptual product characteristics known as symbolic stimuli. To return to the example of Mr. Rao, while the physical appearance, sturdiness, finish, and spaciousness would constitute the significative stimuli for quality, the overall quality that Mr. Rao perceives in his briefcase connotes the symbolic stimuli. The actual price paid for the briefcase is significative stimulus while the perception that the price is reasonable, or too high or is a good bargain is the symbolic stimulus. The third type of stimuli is provided by the consumer's family, reference groups and social class to which he belongs. 34